Because of this invented-discovered (arbitrariness-absoluteness)
paradox of mathematics, there are at least three schools of mathematics
-- formalism, intuitionism and logicism. Logistic school was led by
Russell and Whitehead. They started with the development of logic
itself, from which mathematics follows without any axioms of
mathematics proper. Nonetheless, the development of logic consists in
stating some axioms of logic, from which theorems are deduced that may
be used in subsequent reasoning.
The formalist school was led by Hilbert. He tried to provide a
basis for the number system without using the theory of sets and to
establish the consistency of arithmetic. He developed a proof theory,
a method of establishing the consistency of any formal system.
Controversial principles such as proof of existence by contradiction,
transfinite induction, and the axiom of choice are not used. The
formalists also maintain that logic must be treated simultaneously with
mathematics. In short, to the formalist, mathematics proper is a
collection of formal systems. Mathematics becomes not a subject about
something, but a collection of formal systems, in each of which formal
expressions are obtained from others by formal transformations. Since a
formal system can be unending, metamathematics must entertain concepts
and questions involving at least potentially infinite system. However,
only finitary method of proof should be used.
The intuitionist school was led by Kronecker. He viewed Cantor's
work on transfinite numbers and set theory was not mathematics but
mysticism. He was willing to accept the whole numbers because these are
clear to the intuition. These were the work of God, and all else was
the work of man and suspect. To the intuitionist, mathematical ideas
are imbedded in the human mind prior to language, logic, and
experience. The intuition, not experience or logic, determines the
intuition is opposed to the world of causal perceptions. Language
serves to evoke copies of ideas in man's minds by symbols and sounds.
But thoughts, especially mathematical thoughts, can never be completely
symbolized. Mathematical ideas are independent of language and in fact
far richer.
On the other hand, logic belongs to language. Logic is not a
reliable instrument to uncover truths and can deduce no truths that are
not obtainable just as well in some other way. Logical principles are
the regularity observed a posteriori in the language. They are a device
for manipulating language, or they are the theory of representation of
language. The most important advances in mathematics are not obtained
by perfecting the logical form but by intuitively perceiving the
mathematical truth itself. Thus, logic rests on mathematics, not
mathematics on logic.
The intuitionists therefore proceed to analyze which logical
principles are allowable in order that the usual logic conform to and
properly express the correct intuitions. Consequently many existence
proofs are not accepted by the intuitionists. The law of excluded
middle can be used in cases where the conclusion can be reached in a
finite number of steps. In other cases the intuitionists deny the
possibility of a decision. This gives rise to a new possibility,
undecidable propositions. The intuitionists maintain, with respect to
infinite sets, that there is a third state of affairs, namely, there
may be propositions which are neither provable nor unprovable.
The battle among these schools on the issues about what the essence of mathematics is or what the correct methodology for mathematics is has a great significance which goes way beyond mathematics itself but enters into the domains of philosophy and theology. At least three issues in mathematics are beyond the reach by mathematics.
The Corresponding Principle states --- the complete physics system
(the current mainstream physics is not yet complete) is isomorphic to
the complete mathematics system (the current mathematics is not yet
complete).
Seemingly, this principle is too vague to be useful and the term complete is not yet defined at this point. Nonetheless, the following theorem can be very useful.
Theorem 1: Every mathematical issue (especially those
unsolvable mathematics problems) has a corresponding issue in physics
or in physical world.
Corollary 1: If an unsolvable mathematics problem has no obvious
corresponding issue in physics or in physical world, then there is a
process which has smoothed out that problem in the physical world.
With this corresponding principle, two things have changed completely.
The definition of recursive function in mathematics is quite technical; I will not repeat it. The functions in the sequence sum, product, ... belong to the class of primitive recursive function. Today, the following three theorems are proven in mathematics.
Turing computer differs from any real computer at least in two ways.
With these two marvelous abilities, Turing machine can calculate a function forever and ever. Thus, both Turing computer and we will never know whether that function is computable or not. If we or Turing machine itself can find a procedure to tell it to halt at a certain point and to print out one of the two answers:
It is now mathematically proven that if Church's thesis is true,
then busy beaver problem is unsolvable. This proof is in no means
implying that Church's thesis is true.
Church's thesis itself (that all computable functions are Turing
computable) is not as important as the fact that it itself is
unprovable. The fact that Church's thesis defies the mathematical proof
clearly points out that there is a hole existing in mathematics. This hole will become the rock solid foundation of a new physics. That is, there must be a corresponding difficulty in physics, or there is a process that has smoothed out that difficulty in the physical world.
By accepting Church's thesis and combining it with the busy beaver problem, we can easily prove an existence theorem for uncomputability.
Theorem 2: There are functions which are not computable (by Turing machine or by anything else).
Corollary 2: There is at least one uncountable infinity. (Georg Cantor proved this long ago).
Definition 1: The universe is the union of two sets A and B. Set A is the set of all computable functions; B is the set of all uncomputable.
Theorem 3: Every computable space can be represented with a two codes space, such as: (0, 1), (Yin, Yang) or (Vacutron, Angultron). Note: Many college math books have proof on this theorem.
The concept of a ghost world in the physical universe is derived from a fact of physics --- the intrinsic spin. According to the corresponding principle, there must be a corresponding ghost world in mathematics.
In order to finish this discussion in a few pages, I will
discuss this topic in a conceptual level and with examples. I will not
provide leak proof definitions and theorem proofs.
Example 1: A = {0, ', +, *, =}. From set A, we can make some
arbitrary definitions, such as: 0 = 0, 0' = 1, 0'' = 2, 0''' = 3, ... .
F1 is a function and F1(0'''') = 0'', F1(0''''''''')=0''', etc.. F1,
F2,... are functions which contain no symbols in addition to those in
set A, and they are elements of set FA = {F1, F2,...}. The values from
functions of set FA form set R = {0, 0', 0'',...}.
Definition 2: All mathematical functions are called function.
Definition 3: Set A has finite number of elements. Its elements are symbols of functions. Set A is called a base set.
Definition 4: All elements of set F are functions. F is a function set.
Definition 5: All functions of set FA contains no symbols in addition to those in base set A, FA is a base A function set.
Definition 6: The elements of set RA = {0, 0', 0'',...} are values of functions of FA. RA is a range of FA.
Definition 7: The elements in set LA are logical operators (L1,
L2, ...) defined by any logic. Set LA is called logic set of base A.
Definition 8: F belongs to FA. L belongs to LA. P = LF is called a statement. P belongs to set PA
Definition 9: If set SA is the union of set A (base), set FA
(functions), set RFA (range), set LA (logic), and set PA (statement),
then SA is a system of base A.
Definition 10: P1, P2, ..., Pn are statements. If P = Pn with a finite number n, P is True in SA, otherwise P is False.
Definition 11: F is an element of FA. F is a legitimate function in SA if F has at least one value which belongs to SA.
For example F is the function of square root. F(2) is not in SA, but F(4) is. Thus, F is a legitimate function in SA.
Definition 12: H is a hole of system SA if H = F(x) not belongs to SA and F is a legitimate function of SA, or if H = P (a statement) and P is False.
So far, I did not invent a new mathematics but construct a new language in order to reinterpret an old theorem.
Kurt Godel's incompleteness theorem --- it states, "If any
formal theory T adequate to embrace number theory is consistent and if
the axioms of the formal system of arithmetic are axioms or theorems of
T, then T is incomplete." That is, there is a statement S of number
theory such that neither S nor not-S is a theorem of the theory. This
incompleteness cannot be remedied by adjoining S or not-S as an axiom
because there will be other statements unprovable in this enlarged
system. This result applies to all mathematics schools --- logicism,
formalism and intuitionism. Thus, no system of axioms is adequate to
encompass, not only all of mathematics, but even any one significant
branch of mathematics. There always exist statement whose concept
belongs to the system, which cannot be proved within the system but can
nevertheless be shown to be true by nonformal arguments.
This incompleteness theorem not only dealt a death blow to
axiomatization of mathematics and placed a limitation on mathematical
reasoning, but it is in fact the intrinsic property of reality. The
prevailing interpretation among physicists and mathematicians about
this incompleteness theorem is the conviction that this theorem places
a limitation on any attempt to understand the ultimate nature of
universe.
On the contrary, I see this incompleteness theorem is the only gateway to Ultimate Reality.
On the time sequence, it is the laws of physics which govern the
evolution of the physical universe. Humans arose 15 billion years after
the creation of those physics laws, and mathematics were created a few
million years after the rise of humans. However, in order truly to
unify physics and mathematics, mathematics must also be able to give
rise to physics laws, that is, the laws of physics must be direct consequences of laws of mathematics.
According to the previous sections, the real mathematics
universe is permanently entangled with the ghost mathematics world. For
the sake of convenience, I will approximate the entire mathematics
universe (union of the real and the ghost) by dividing it into three
parts --- computable-, countable infinite- and uncountable infinite-universes.
Per theorem 3, the computable universe can be fully represented
by a two code space, such as (Yin, Yang) or (Vacutron, Angultron).
Thus, quarks cannot be the rock bottom building blocks of the physical
universe. Prequark model (Vacutron, Angultron) is indispensable.
Someone might argue that there must have more layers of inner
structure inside of the prequarks. Again, we can prove that that idea
(more inner structure of prequarks) is wrong simply from the argument
of mathematics.
If there has only one subparticle, named D, underneath prequarks, then we can consider two cases.
If there has two subparticles, named (D, E), underneath prequarks, it is definitely a tautology.
If there has three or more subparticles, named (D, E, F),
underneath prequarks, then is there not only no reduction but an
increase to complexity.
Thus, there is no reduction by adding one more layer of structure underneath any two code system.
Again, because there is an uncomputable universe in
mathematics, the physical universe can never be represented with just
two codes only. More dimensions are needed in the physical world to represent that uncomputable universe.
In 1823, Heinrich Olbers showed with a simple mathematical model
that the night sky ought to be as bright as day if the universe is
infinite in size and if the Copernican Cosmological Principle (CCP) is
true. The fact that the night sky is dark means that those assumptions
are wrong or there are some unknown factors at work, such as the
universe is expanding or it had a finite beginning (not infinite in
size).
In 1922, Alexander Friedmann combined CCP with General
Relativity and predicted that the universe cannot be static. His
prediction was ignored by the world (including Einstein) but was
confirmed seven years later in 1929 by Edwin Hubble.
Since the universe is expanding, then it must have a finite
beginning. In 1948, George Gamow put forward the idea of the Big Bang
theory, and the Olber's paradox was put to rest. The expansion of the
universe will dim the light (through red-shift) by a factor of about 2.
The finite size of universe (that is, the universe is still young,
having a finite age) gives darkness to the night sky.
According to the Corresponding Principle, those mathematical
infinities must be transformed into finites in the physical world by
some processes because the physical universe is a finitude.
Then, how to transform the infinities into finites?
In mathematics, the uncountable infinity gives rise to the concept of indivisibility. Let us presume that the intersection between the set of nature number B and the set of irrational number IR is an empty set. Then, we can color nature number in blue and irrational in red. The Fermat's last theorem tells us that we can never find a blue number (z) while its nth power equals to the sum of nth power of a blue number (x) and the nth power of another blue number (y) when n is larger than 2. However, we do able to find a z, but it must be a red number. This theorem points out two very important points.
This indivisibility of mathematics must show up in the physical world. And, it does, as the reality of non-causality via the spooky action.
In 1870s, Georg Cantor was working on the number theory. He proved
that the set of rational numbers, seemingly many more numbers than
nature numbers, can be brought into one-to-one correspondence with the
set of nature numbers. Then, he raised a nagging question: Can the real
numbers be also brought into an one-to-one correspondence with the
naturals? Soon, he found his theorem: The correspondence is impossible;
there are, in this sense, more real numbers than there are naturals.
If there are so many points on the real line, how many might
there be in a plane, in a three- or four- or n-dimensional space? He
finally proved that every n-dimensional space can always be brought
into an one-to-one correspondence with the one dimensional line, that
is, one dimensional line can give rise to n-dimensional space.
This
dimensionality issue can also be understood with fractal geometry. In
fractal geometry, there are many space-filling curves, an infinite
number of them to be exact. I will discuss one of them here, the Hilbert curve.
The Hilbert curve is generated by starting with a square with one side
being removed. Then that same figure is applied to each of its own
three sides, and some erasing is done. After the iteration of the
Hilbert curve is carries out indefinitely, the curve crosses every
point on a plane without crossing itself. See the figure on the left.
With the concept of space-filling curves, Cantor's theorem of dimensionality in number theory is now generalized as a Shadow Theorem in fractal geometry. This Shadow Theorem illustrates how apparently random orbits may actually be the shadows of deterministic motions in higher dimensional spaces. This Shadow Theorem unifies three sets of opposites, thus produces three cornerstones for the real world. These three sets of opposites are random versus deterministic, high dimensions versus one dimension, and simplicity versus complexity. Again, the mathematics principle allows the rise of Equation zero.
Godel's incompleteness theorem constructs a process, and it shows
that all mathematical systems which are invented by men who have arbitrarily chosen a few finite number of axioms and mathematical reasoning rules will always come alive
and puke up at least one mathematical statement which is beyond the
comprehension of its inventors. In short, the fire of God's spirit will
always burn a hole on every mathematical system invented by men. This
process is a ball-donut transformation.
In Topology, a topological ball can never be transformed into a
topological donut by a continuous deformation process, but the growing
process of mathematics above is not a continuous deformation process.
This ball-donut transformation process of mathematics must manifest in
the physical world. In fact, it does.
In physical world, the ball-donut transformation manifests on all levels.